feld.
See AGRICULTURE .
fi'-er-i, fir'-i het: In Dt 28:22, where the King James Version has "an extreme burning."
See FEVER .
See SERPENT .
fig'-tre (te'enah, plural te'enim, specially "figs"; paggim, "green figs" only in Song 2:13; suke, "fig-tree," sukon, "fig"):
1. Fig-Trees in the Old Testament:
The earliest Old Testament reference to the fig is to the leaves, which Adam and Eve converted into aprons (Gen 3:7). The promised land was described (Dt 8:8) as "a land of wheat and barley, and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates," etc. The spies who visited it brought, besides the cluster of grapes, pomegranates and figs (Nu 13:23). The Israelites complained that the wilderness was "no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates" (Nu 20:5). When Egypt was plagued, the fig-trees were smitten (Ps 105:33); a similar punishment was threatened to unfaithful Israel (Jer 5:17; Hos 2:12; Am 4:9). It is only necessary to ride a few miles among the mountain villages of Palestine, with their extensive fig gardens, to realize what a long-lasting injury would be the destruction of these slow-growing trees. Years of patient labor--such as that briefly hinted at in Lk 13:7--must pass before a newly planted group of fig-trees can bear profitably. Plenitude of fruitful vines and fig-trees, specially individual ownership, thus came to be emblematical of long-continued peace and prosperity. In the days of Solomon "Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig-tree" (1 Ki 4:25). Compare also 2 Ki 18:31; Isa 36:16; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10; 1 Macc 14:12. Only a triumphal faith in Yahweh could rejoice in Him "though the fig-tree shall hot flourish" (Hab 3:17).
2. Natural History of the Fig-Tree:
The Ficus carica, which produces the common fig, is a tree belonging to the Natural Order. Urticaceae, the nettle family, which includes also the banyan, the India rubber fig-tree, the sycamore fig and other useful plants. Fig-trees are cultivated all over the Holy Land, especially in the mountain regions. Wild fig-trees--usually rather shrubs than trees--occur also everywhere; they are usually barren and are described by the fellahin as "male" trees; it is generally supposed that their presence is beneficial to the cultivated variety. The immature flowers harbor small insects which convey pollen to the female flowers and by their irritating presence stimulate the growth of the fruit. Artificial fertilization has been understood since ancient times, and there may be a reference to it in Am 7:14.
Fig-trees are usually of medium height, 10 or 15 ft. for full-grown trees, yet individual specimens sometimes attain as much as 25 ft. The summer foliage is thick and surpasses other trees of its size in its cool and dense shade. In the summer owners of such trees may be seen everywhere sitting in their shadow (Jn 1:48). Such references as Mac 4:4; Zec 3:10, etc., probably are to this custom rather than to the not uncommon one of having a fig-tree overhanging a dwelling.
The fruit of the fig-tree is peculiar. The floral axis, instead of expanding outward, as with most flowers, closes, as the flower develops, upon the small internal flowers, leaving finally but a small opening at the apex; the axis itself becomes succulent and fruit-like. The male flowers lie around the opening, the female flowers deeper in; fertilization is brought about by the presence of small hymenopterous insects.
There are many varieties of figs in Palestine differing in sweetness, in color and consistence; some are good and some are bad (compare Jer 24:1,8; 29:17). In Palestine and other warm climates the fig yields two crops annually--an earlier one, ripe about June, growing from the "old wood," i.e. from the midsummer sprouts of the previous year, and a second, more important one, ripe about August, which grows upon the "new wood," i.e. upon the spring shoots. By December, fig-trees in the mountainous regions of Palestine have shed all their leaves, and they remain bare until about the end of March, when they commence putting forth their tender leaf buds (Mt 24:32; Mk 13:28,32; Lk 21:29-33), and at the same time, in the leaf axils, appear the tiny figs. They belong to the early signs of spring:
"The voice of the turtle-dove is heard in our land;
The fig-tree ripeneth her green figs" (paggim)
These tiny figs develop along with the leaves up to a certain point--to about the size of a small cherry--and then the great majority of them fall to the ground, carried down with every gust of wind. These are the "unripe figs" (olunthos)--translated, more appropriately in the King James Version, as "untimely figs"--of Rev 6:13. Compare also Isa 34:4 the King James Version--in the Revised Version (British and American) "leaf" has been supplied instead of "fig." These immature figs are known to the fellahin as taksh, by whom they are eaten as they fall; they may even sometimes be seen exposed for sale in the markets in Jerusalem. In the case of many trees the whole of this first crop may thus abort, so that by May no figs at all are to be found on the tree, but with the best varieties of fig-trees a certain proportion of the early crop of figs remains on the tree, and this fruit reaches ripe perfection about June. Such fruit is known in Arabic as dafur, or "early figs," and in Hebrew as bikkurah, "the first-ripe" (Isa 28:4; Jer 24:2; Hos 9:10). They are now, as of old, esteemed for their delicate flavor (Mic 7:1, etc.).
5. The Cursing of the Barren Fig-Tree:
The miracle of our Lord (Mt 21:18-20; Mk 11:12,13,10,21) which occurred in the Passover season, about April, will be understood (as far as the natural phenomena are concerned) by the account given above of the fruiting of the fig-tree, as repeatedly observed by the present writer in the neighborhood of Jerusalem. When the young leaves are newly appearing, in April, every fig-tree which is going to bear fruit at all will have some taksh ("immature figs") upon it, even though "the time of figs" (Mk 11:13 the King James Version), i.e. of ordinary edible figs--either early or late crop--"was not yet." This taksh is not only eaten today, but it is sure evidence, even when it falls, that the tree bearing it is not barren. This acted parable must be compared with Lk 13:6,9; now the time of judgment was surely coming, the fate of the fruitless Jewish nation was forcibly foretold.
While fresh figs have always been an important article of diet in their season (Neh 13:15) the dried form is even more used. They are today dried in the sun and threaded on strings (like long necklaces) for convenience of carriage. A "cake of figs" (debhelah, literally, "pressed together") is mentioned (1 Sam 30:12); Abigail gave 200 such cakes of figs to David (1 Sam 25:18); the people of North Israel sent, with other things, "cakes of figs" as a present to the newly-crowned David (1 Ch 12:40). Such masses of figs are much used today--they can be cut into slices with a knife like cheese. Such a mass was used externally for Hezekiah's "boil" (Isa 38:21; 2 Ki 20:7); it was a remedy familiar to early medical writers.
E. W. G. Masterman
fig'-ur, fig'-yur (cemel, cemel; tupos): The translation of cemel, or cemel, "a likeness or image"; perhaps a transposition of tselem, the usual word for likeness; it is elsewhere translated "idol" and "image" (Dt 4:16, "the similitude of any figure," the Revised Version (British and American) "in the form of any figure"); of tabhnith, "form or likeness" (Isa 44:13, "shapeth it (the idol) .... after the figure of a man"; compare Dt 4:16); of miqla`ath, "carving," "carved work" (1 Ki 6:29: "And he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubim and palm-trees and open flowers, within and without," only here and in 1 Ki 6:32; 7:31 where the word is translated "carving" and "graying"); in the New Testament "figure" is the translation of tupos, primarily "a mark," "print," "impression," "something made by blows," hence, "figure," "statue," tropically "form," "manner"; a person bearing the form or figure of another, having a certain resemblance, preceding another to come, model, exemplar (Acts 7:43), "the figures (images) which ye made to worship them"; Rom 5:14, "who is the figure (Revised Version, "a figure") of him that was to come," that is, the first Adam was a type of the second Adam, Christ; of antitupon, that which corresponds to a type or model (Heb 9:24 the King James Version, "Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands, which are the figures of the true; but into heaven itself"); the meaning is simply the correspondence, or likeness (of the tabernacle to heaven), therefore the Revised Version (British and American) renders "like in pattern to the true" (1 Pet 3:21, "the like figure whereunto (even) baptism doth also now save us," i.e. baptism is the antitype of the ark "wherein .... eight souls were saved (or brought safely) through water," Revised Version "which also after a true likeness (m "in the antitype") doth now save you even baptism"); of parabole, "a placing alongside", a "comparison," "similitude," hence, image, figure, type (Heb 9:9, "which was a figure for the time then present," the American Standard Revised Version "which is a figure for the time present," the English Revised Version "parable" and "(now) present," namely, the entrance of the high priest into the Holy of Holies was a type of Christ's entrance into heaven; 11:19, "from whence (from the dead) also he received him in a figure," i.e. Abraham received Isaac back from the dead as it were, in the likeness of a resurrection, he not being actually dead, the American Standard Revised Version "from whence he did also in a figure receive him back," the English Revised Version "in a parable"); metaschematizo, "to change the form or appearance," "to transfer figuratively" (1 Cor 4:6,"These things, brethren, I have in a figure transferred to myself and Apollos"; the Geneva version reads "I have figuratively described in my own person"). Paul is "substituting himself and Apollos for the teachers most in repute at Corinth that he might thus avoid personality."
"Figure" is supplied in Ecclesiasticus 49:9, with en ombro, "He made mention of the enemies under the figure of the rain," the Revised Version (British and American) "He remembered the enemies in storm," margin "(Greek) rain."
The Revised Version (British and American) has "a figure" margin "an interpretation," for "the interpretation" (Prov 1:6; the word is melitsah, only here and Hab 2:6, meaning properly what is involved and needs interpretation; in Hab 2:6 it is translated "taunting proverb," the Revised Version, margin "riddle"); "figured stone" for "image of stone" (Lev 26:1); "figured stones" for "pictures" (Nu 33:52).
W. L. Walker
fil: Found only in 1 Sam 13:21, but the text here is obscure. The Hebrew (petsirah phim) signifies "bluntness of edge," and is so rendered in the Revised Version, margin.
See TOOLS .
fil'-et (chuT, chashuq):
(1) Chut, from a root not used, meaning probably "to sew," therefore a string or a measuring rod or cord, and so a line, tape, thread, fillet. Jer 52:21 translated "line" (the King James Version "fillet"), measuring 12 cubits long, encircling brass pillars standing 18 cubits high, part of the temple treasure plundered by the Chaldeans; and many other things "that were in the house of Yahweh, did the Chaldeans break in pieces." Translated "thread," used by Rahab, in Josh 2:18, and "cord," "three fold .... is not quickly broken," in Eccl 4:12.
(2) Chashuq, from a root meaning "to join" and therefore something joined or attached, and so a rail or rod between pillars, i.e. a fillet. The hangings of the court of the tabernacle were supported by brass pillars set in brass sockets, "The hooks of the pillars and their fillets shall be of silver" (Ex 27:10,11). The embroidered screen for the door of the Tent was supported by five pillars socketed in brass: "And he overlaid their capitals and their fillets with gold" (Ex 36:38). The pillars for the court and the gate of the court had fillets of silver (Ex 38:10 ff). The verb is used in Ex 27:17; 38:17, "All the pillars of the court were filleted with silver."
William Edward Raffety
filth, fil'-thi-nes, fil'-thi (tso'ah, Tum'ah; rhupoo): The word once translated "filth" in the Old Testament is tso'ah, "excrement" or "dung," elsewhere translated "dung" (Isa 4:4, used figuratively of evil doings, sin, "the filth of the daughters of Zion"; compare Prov 30:12); in the New Testament we have perikatharma "cleansings" "sweepings," offscourings (1 Cor 4:13, "We are made as the filth of the world," the Revised Version, margin "or refuse"); rhupos, "filth," "dirt," Septuagint for tso'ah in Isa 4:4 (1 Pet 3:21, "the filth of the flesh").
"Filthiness" is the translation of tum'ah, "uncleanness" (ritual, Lev 5:3; 7:20, etc.), used figuratively of moral impurity, translated "filthiness" (Ezr 6:21; Lam 1:9; Ezek 22:15; 24:11,13 bis; 36:25); niddah, "impurity" (2 Ch 29:5); figuratively (Ezr 9:11); the Revised Version (British and American) has "uncleanness," but "filthiness" for uncleanness at close of verse (niddah); nechosheth, "brass," figuratively (for "impurity" or "impudence") (Ezek 16:36); aischrotes, primarily "ugliness," tropical for unbecomingness, indecency (only Eph 5:4, "nor filthiness, nor foolish talking"; Alford has "obscenity," Weymouth, "shameful"); akathartes, "uncleanness" (Rev 17:4 the King James Version), corrected text, ta akatharta, "the unclean things," so the Revised Version (British and American).
"Filthy" is the translation of 'alach, "to be turbid," to become foul or corrupt in a moral sense (Job 15:16 the King James Version; Ps 14:3; 53:3); `iddim, plural of `iddah, from `adhadh, "to number or compute (monthly courses)"; Isa 64:6, "All our righteousnesses are as filthy rags," the Revised Version (British and American) "as a polluted garment"; compare Ezek 36:17; aischros, "ugly," tropical for unbecoming, shameful (Tit 1:11, "for filthy lucre's sake"; compare 1:7); shameful discourse aischrologia (Col 3:8 the King James Version); rhupoo, "filthy," in a moral sense polluted (Rev 22:11, "He that is filthy, let him be filthy still," the Revised Version (British and American) "let him be made filthy still" (corrected text), margin "yet more"; Alford, "Let the filthy (morally polluted) pollute himself still" (in the constant middle sense of passive verbs when the act depends on the man's self)).
In Apocrypha we have (Ecclesiasticus 22:1): "A slothful man is compared to a filthy (ardaloo) stone," the Revised Version (British and American) "a stone that is defiled," 22:2 "A slothful man is compared to the filth (bolbiton) of a dunghill"; 27:4 "So the filth (skubalon) of a man in his talk (the Revised Version (British and American) "of man in his reasoning") remaineth."
See UNCLEANNESS .
W. L. Walker
See FISH .
fin (adj., from Latin finire, "to finish"): Indicates superior quality. Only in a few instances does "fine" represent a separate word: (1) Tobh, "good," qualifies gold (2 Ch 3:5,8, "fine gold"; compare Gen 2:12, "good"); fine gold (Lam 4:1, the King James Version "most fine gold," the Revised Version (British and American) "most pure gold," literally, "good fine gold"), copper (Ezr 8:27, the Revised Version (British and American) "fine bright brass"); Tabh, Aramaic (Dan 2:32, "fine gold"). (2) paz, "refined" (Song 5:11, "the most fine gold"). (3) chelebh, "fatness," "the best of any kind"; compare Gen 45:18; Dt 32:14, etc. (Ps 81:16, "the finest of the wheat," the Revised Version, margin Hebrew "fat of wheat"). (4) sariq, "fine combed" (Isa 19:9, "fine flax," the Revised Version (British and American) "combed flax").
In other places it expresses a quality of the substantive: kethem, "fine gold" (Job 31:24; Dan 10:5, the Revised Version (British and American) "pure gold"); paz, used as a noun for refined gold (Job 28:17; Ps 19:10; Prov 8:19; Isa 13:12; Lam 4:2); charuts, "fine gold" (Prov 3:14; compare Ps 68:13, "yellow gold"); coleth, "flour," rendered "fine flour," rolled or crushed small (Lev 2:1,4,5,7, etc.); semidalis, "the finest wheaten flour" (Rev 18:13); qemach coleth, "fine meal" (Gen 18:6); cadhin, "linen garment" (Septuagint sindon, Prov 31:24 the King James Version; Isa 3:23); shesh, "white," "fine linen" (Gen 41:42; Ex 25:4, etc.); in Prov 31:22 the King James Version has "silk"; sheshi (Ezek 16:13, "fine flour"); 'eTun, "what is twisted or spun," "yarn" (Prov 7:16 the King James Version, "fine linen of Egypt" the Revised Version (British and American) "yarn of Egypt"); buts, "fine white cloth," "cotton or linen," "fine linen" (1 Ch 4:21; Ezek 27:16, etc.; 2 Ch 5:12, King James Version "white," the Revised Version (British and American) "fine"); bussos, "byssus," "linen" from buts Septuagint for which, 2 Ch 2:14; 3:14), deemed very fine and precious, worn only by the rich (Lk 16:19; Rev 18:12); bussinos, "byssine" made of fine linen, Septuagint for buts (1 Ch 5:27) (Rev 18:16, "clothed in fine linen," the Revised Version (British and American) "arrayed," Rev 19:8,14); sindon, "fine linen" (Mk 5:46, "He bought fine linen," the Revised Version (British and American) "a linen cloth"; compare Mk 14:51,52; Mt 27:59; Lk 23:53); it was used for wrapping the body at night, also for wrapping round dead bodies; sindon is Septuagint for cadhin (Jdg 14:12,13; Prov 31:24); chalkolibanon (Rev 1:15; 2:18, the King James Version "fine brass").
The meaning of this word has been much discussed; chalkos is "brass" in Greek (with many compounds), and libanos is the Septuagint for lebhonah, "frankincense," which word was probably derived from the root labhan, "to burn"; this would give glowing brass, "as if they burned in a furnace"; in Dan 10:6 it is nehosheth qalal, the King James Version "polished brass," the Revised Version (British and American) "burnished" (qalal is "to glow"). Plumptre deemed it a hybrid word composed of the Greek chalkos, "brass," and the Hebrew labhan, "white," a technical word, such as might be familiar to the Ephesians; the Revised Version (British and American) has "burnished brass"; Weymouth, "silver-bronze when it is white-hot in a furnace"; the whiteness being expressed by the second half of the Greek word. See Thayer's Lexicon (s.v.).
In Apocrypha we have "fine linen," bussinos (1 Esdras 3:6), "fine bread"; the adjective katharos, separate (Judith 10:5, the Revised Version, margin "pure bread"); "fine flour" (Ecclesiasticus 35:2; 38:11); semidalis (Bel and the Dragon verse 3; 2 Macc 1:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "meal offering").
W. L. Walker
fin'-er, fin'-ing (Prov 25:4 the King James Version).
See REFINER .
finz.
See PUNISHMENTS .
fin'-ger (Hebrew and Aramaic 'etsba`; daktulos): The fingers are to the Oriental essential in conversation; their language is frequently very eloquent and expressive. They often show what the mouth does not dare to utter, especially grave insult and scorn. The scandalous person is thus described in Prov 6:13 as "teaching" or "making signs with his fingers." Such insulting gestures (compare e.g. the gesture of Shimei in throwing dust or stones at David, 2 Sam 16:6) are even now not infrequent in Palestine. The same habit is alluded to in Isa 58:9 by the expression, "putting forth of fingers. "
The fingers were decorated with rings of precious metal, which, with other jewelry worn ostentatiously on the body, often formed the only possession of the wearer, and were therefore carefully guarded. In the same way the law of Yahweh was to be kept: "Bind them (my commandments) upon thy fingers; write them upon the tablet of thy heart" (Prov 7:3).
Figurative: In 1 Ki 12:10 and 2 Ch 10:10 Rehoboam gives the remarkable answer to his dissatisfied people, which is, at the same time, an excellent example of the use of figurative language in the Orient: "My little finger is thicker than my father's loins," a figure explained in the next verse: "Whereas my father did lade you with a heavy yoke, I will add to your yoke: my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." The Hebrew word used here for little finger is qoTen, literally, "pettiness," "unimportant thing."
The "finger of God," like the "hand of God," is synonymous with power, omnipotence, sometimes with the additional meaning of the infallible evidence of Divine authorship visible in all His works (Ps 8:3; Lk 11:20), especially in His law (Ex 8:19; 31:18; Dt 9:10; compare Ex 32:15,16).
The finger or digit as a linear measure is mentioned in Jer 52:21 (Greek daktulos; Josephus, Ant, VIII, iii, 4). It is equal to one finger-breadth, 1/4 of a hand-breadth (palm) = 18,6 millimeters or .73 inches.
H. L. E. Luering
fin'-ger ('etsba`): The smallest of the Hebrew linear measures. It was equal to the breadth of the finger, or about 3/4 inches, four of which made a palm (Jer 52:21).
See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES .
fin'-ish (kalah; teleo, with other Hebrew and Greek words): The proper sense of "finish" is to end or complete; so for "finish," "finished," in the King James Version, there is sometimes met with in the Revised Version (British and American) the change to "complete" (Lk 14:28; 2 Cor 8:6), "accomplish" (Jn 4:34; 5:36; 17:4), "made an end of doing" (2 Ch 4:11; compare 24:14), etc. In Jas 1:15, for "sin, when it is finished," the Revised Version (British and American) reads "sin when it is full-grown," corresponding to "conceived" of the previous clause. On the other hand, the Revised Version (British and American) has frequently "finished" for other words, as "ended" (Gen 2:2; Dt 31:30), "accomplished" (Jn 19:28), "filled up," "fulfilled" (Rev 15:1,8), etc. The grandest Scriptural example of the word is the cry upon the cross, "It is finished" (Tetelestai, Jn 19:30).
W. L. Walker
fin'-ish-er (teleiotes): This word is applied to Jesus (Heb 12:2), and comes from teleioo, "to complete," "to make perfect"; hence, it means finisher in the sense of completing; the King James Version "the author and finisher of our faith," the Revised Version (British and American) "the author (margin "captain") and perfecter of our faith"; but "our" is supplied, and in the connection in which the passage stands--after the examples which have been adduced of the power of faith--most probably the best rendering is "the Leader (or Captain) and Perfecter of the Faith," that is of the faith which has been illustrated by those mentioned in Heb 11, who are as "a great cloud of witnesses" to the power of faith; but above all "looking to Jesus, our Leader" in whom it was perfected, as is shown in what follows: "who for the joy that was set before him endured the cross," etc. "In His human nature He exhibited Faith in its highest form, from first to last, and placing Himself as it were at the head of the great army of heroes of Faith, He carried Faith, the source of their strength, to its most complete perfection and to its loftiest triumph" (Westcott).
W. L. Walker
fur, (the Revised Version, margin "cypress"; berosh, 2 Sam 6:5; 1 Ki 5:8,10, etc.; (berothem (plural only), an Aramaic form, Song 1:17):
This tree was one of the chief trees of Lebanon (Isa 60:13); one of usefulness (Isa 41:19; 55:13); associated with the cedar (2 Ki 19:23; Ps 104:17; Isa 14:8; Zec 11:2); its boughs were wide and great (Ezek 31:8); it was evergreen (Hos 14:8); it could supply boards and timber for doors (1 Ki 6:15,24); beams for roofing the temple (2 Ch 3:5); planks for shipbuilding (Ezek 27:5). In 2 Sam 6:5 we read: "David and all the house of Israel played before Yahweh with all manner of instruments made of fir-wood," etc. It is practically certain that the reading in the parallel passage in 1 Ch 13:8 is more correct: "David and all Israel played before God with all their might, even with songs," etc. This view is supported by the Septuagint translation (en pase dunamei). There is therefore no necessity to suppose that berosh was a wood used for musical instruments.
The identity of berosh is uncertain. It was a name applied either to several of the Coniferae in common or to one or more outstanding species. If the latter is the case we can only seek for the most suited to Old Testament requirements. The Aleppo pine, Pinus Halepensis, is a fine tree which flourishes in the Lebanon, but its wood is not of special excellence and durability. A better tree (or couple of trees) is the sherbin of the Syrians; this name includes two distinct varieties in the suborder Cypressineae, the fine tall juniper, Juniperis excelsa and the cypress, Cypressus sempervirens. They both still occur in considerable numbers in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon; they are magnificent trees and produce excellent wood--resinous, fragrant, durable. If these trees were not classed locally, as now, under one name, then the cypress is of the two more probably the berosh. The coffins of Egyptian mummies were made of cypress; a compact variety of this cypress is cultivated all over the Turkish empire by the Moslems as an ornament in cemeteries. From early times the cypress has been connected with mourning.
In the Apocrypha there are two definite references to the cypress (kuparissos). In Sirach 24:13, Wisdom says:
"I was exalted like a cedar in Libanus,
And as a cypress tree on the mountains of Hermon."
And in Sirach 50:10 the high priest Simon is said to be
"As an olive tree budding forth fruits,
And as a cypress growing high among the clouds."
These passages, especially the former, certainly favor the idea that berosh was the cypress; the name may, however, have included allied trees.
E. W. G. Masterman
fir ('esh; pur): These are the common words for fire, occurring very frequently. 'Ur, "light" (Isa 24:15 the King James Version; compare the Revised Version (British and American); 31:9, and see FIRES ), nur (Aramaic) (Dan 3:22 ff) are found a few times, also 'eshshah (Jer 6:29), and be`erah (Ex 22:6), once each. Acts 28:2,3 has pura, "pyre," and Mk 14:54; Lk 22:56, phos, "light," the Revised Version (British and American) "in the light (of the fire)." "To set on fire," yatsath (2 Sam 14:31), lahat (Dt 32:22, etc.), phlogizo (Jas 3:6).
Fire was regarded by primitive peoples as supernatural in origin and specially Divine. Molech, the fire-god, and other deities were worshipped by certain Canaanitish and other tribes with human sacrifices (Dt 12:31; 2 Ki 17:31; Ps. 106:37), and, although this was specially forbidden to the Israelites (Lev 18:21; Dt 12:31; 18:10), they too often lapsed into the practice (2 Ki 16:3; 21:6; Jer 7:31; Ezek 20:26,31).
Fire in the Old Testament is specially associated with the Divine presence, e.g. in the making of the Covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:17), in the burning bush. (Ex 3:2-4), in the pillar of fire (Ex 13:21), on Sinai (Ex 19:18), in the flame on the altar (Jdg 13:20). Yahweh was "the God that answereth by fire" (1 Ki 18:24,38). In the Law, therefore, sacrifices and offerings (including incense) were to be made by fire (Ex 12:8,9,10; Lev 1). Fire from Yahweh signified the acceptance of certain special and separate sacrifices (Jdg 6:21; 1 Ki 18:38; 1 Ch 21:26). In Lev 9:24 the sacrificial fire "came forth from before Yahweh." The altar-fire was to be kept continually burning (Lev 6:12,13); offering by "strange fire" (other than the sacred altar-fire) was punished by "fire from before Yahweh" (Lev 10:1,2). Fire came from heaven also at the consecration of Solomon's Temple (2 Ch 7:1).
According to 2 Macc 1:19-22, at the time of the Captivity priests hid the sacred fire in a well, and Nehemiah found it again, in a miraculous way, for the second Temple. Later, Maccabeus is said to have restored the fire by "striking stones and taking fire out of them" (10:3).
Fire was a frequent instrument of the Divine primitive wrath (Gen 19:24; Ex 9:23 (lightning); Nu 11:1; 16:35, etc.; Ps 104:4, the American Standard Revised Version "Who maketh .... flames of fire his ministers"). Fire shall yet dissolve the world (2 Pet 3:12). It was frequently used by the Israelites as a means of destruction of idolatrous objects and the cities of their enemies (Dt 7:5,25; 12:3; 13:16; Josh 6:24; Jgs, frequently); sometimes also of punishment (Lev 20:14; 21:9; Josh 7:25; 2 Macc 7:5).
The domestic use of fire was, as among other peoples, for heating, cooking, lighting, etc., but according to the Law no fire could be kindled on the Sabbath day (Ex 35:3). It was employed also for melting (Ex 32:24), and refining (Nu 31:23; 3:2,3, etc.). For the sacrificial fire wood was used as fuel (Gen 22:3,1; Lev 6:12); for ordinary purposes, also charcoal (Prov 25:22; Isa 6:6, the Revised Version, margin "or hot stone"; Hab 3:5, the Revised Version (British and American) "fiery bolts," margin "or burning coals"; Jn 21:9, "a fire of coals" the Revised Version, margin "Gr, a fire of charcoal"; Rom 12:20); branches (Nu 15:32; 1 Ki 17:12); thorns (Ps 58:9; 118:12; Eccl 7:6; Isa 33:12); grass and other herbage (Mt 6:30; Lk 12:28).
Fire was an emblem (1) of Yahweh in His glory (Dan 7:9); (2) in His holiness (Isa 6:4); (3) in His jealousy for His sole worship (Dt 4:24; Heb 12:29; Ps 79:5; perhaps also Isa 33:14); (4) of His protection of His people (2 Ki 6:17; Zec 2:5); (5) of His righteous judgment and purification (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:2,3; 1 Cor 3:13,15); (6) of His wrath against sin and punishment of the wicked (Dt 9:3; Ps 18:8; 89:46; Isa 5:24; 30:33, "a Topheth is prepared of old"; Mt 3:10-12; 5:22, the Revised Version (British and American) "the hell of fire," margin "Greek, Gehenna of fire"; see Isa 30:33; Jer 7:31; Mt 13:40,42; 25:41, "eternal fire"; Mk 9:45-49; see Isa 66:24; 2 Thess 1:7; Heb 10:27; Jude 1:7); (7) of the word of God in its power (Jer 5:14; 23:29); (8) of Divine truth (Ps 39:3; Jer 20:9; Lk 12:49); (9) of that which guides men (Isa 50:10,11); (10) of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:3); (11) of the glorified Christ (Rev 1:14); (12) of kindness in its melting power (Rom 12:20); (13) of trial and suffering (Ps 66:12; Isa 43:2; 1 Pet 17; 4:12); (14) of evil (Prov 6:27; 16:27; Isa 9:18; 65:5); lust or desire (Hos 7:6; Sirach 23:16; 1 Cor 7:9); greed (Prov 30:16); (15) of the tongue in its evil aspects (Jas 3:5,6); (16) of heaven in its purity and glory (Rev 15:2; see also 21:22,23).
W. L. Walker
See BAPTISM OF FIRE ;MOLECH .
See LAKE OF FIRE .
See FIRE .
See UNQUENCHABLE FIRE .
fir'-brand ('udh, used for a burning stick taken out of the fire): In Jdg 15:4,5 describing the "brands" (margin "torches") which Samson tied to the foxes' tails, the word is lappidh ("lamp"; see Jdg 7:16,20 the Revised Version (British and American), "torches"). Other words are ziqqim, "sparks," "flames" (fiery darts; Prov 26:18), and ziqoth (Isa 50:11); 'udh is used figuratively of angry men (Isa 7:4), and of those mercifully rescued from destruction (Am 4:11; Zec 3:2; the Revised Version (British and American) "brand"). the Revised Version (British and American) gives "firebrand" as translation of moqedh (the King James Version "hearth") in Ps 102:3, "My bones are burned as a firebrand" (margin "as a hearth").
See BRAND .
W. L. Walker
fir'-pan (machtah, "firepan," "censer," "snuffdish," from chathah, "to snatch up"): A vessel for carrying coals. Brazen firepans were part of the furnishings of the altar of burnt offerings (Ex 27:3; 38:3, and in Nu 4:14, where the King James Version wrongly reads "censers," the context indicating a vessel belonging to the brazen altar).
The same word is translated "snuffdishes" in Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nu 4:9, where it refers to golden firepans which belonged to the golden candlestick or lamp stand, and were used to receive the burnt ends of the wicks. In 1 Ki 7:50 and 2 Ch 4:22, although the King James Version reads "censers," the context points to the firepans belonging to the candlestick; as also in 2 Ki 25:15 and Jer 52:19, translated "firepans" in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American). A similar firepan designated by the same Hebrew word but translated "censer" was used to carry the burning coals upon which the incense was thrown and burned (Lev 10:1; 16:12; Nu 16:6,17 ff).
See CENSER .
The firepan or censer of the Hebrews was doubtless similar to the censer of the Egyptians, pictures of which have been found. It consisted of a pan or pot for the coals, which was held by a straight or slightly curved long handle. The style of censer used in recent centuries, swung by three chains, came into use about the 12th century AD.
George Rice Hovey
firz: In Isa 24:15 the King James Version translates 'urim ("lights," especially Urim in the phrase "Urim and Thummim") "fires." The Revised Version (British and American), understanding the word to mean the region of light, translates "east," which satisfies the context far better, and is adopted by many modern scholars. In Ezek 39:9,10 the Revised Version (British and American) has "fires"; in 39:9 "make fires" is a translation of a verb of different root; in 39:10 "fires" translates the common singular noun for fire.
fur'-kin (metretes): The liquid measure used in Jn 2:6 to indicate the capacity of the water-pots mentioned in the narrative of the miracle of turning the water into wine. It is regarded as equivalent to the Hebrew bath, and thus contained about nine gallons.
See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES .
fur'-ma-ment.
See ASTRONOMY . III, 3.
furst ('echadh, ri'shon; proton, to proton, protos): Of these words, which are those most frequently used for "first," ri'shon is from rosh, "the head, and is used for the highest, chief, etc.; also of time, the beginning, e.g. Gen 8:13, in the first month"; in Isa 44:6; 48:12, it is used of Yahweh as Eternal and solely Supreme--the First and the Last (compare 41:4). Special usages are in connection with "firstborn," "first-fruit," etc.; proton is used of that which is first in order; but also of that which is first or chief in importance, etc. (Mt 6:33; Jas 3:17). In 1 Tim 1:15, Paul says Jesus came "to save sinners; of whom I am chief," literally, "first"; the same word is used by Jesus of the "first" of the commandments (Mk 12:29); where we read in 1 Cor 15:3, "I delivered unto you first of all," it is en protois ("in the foremost place"); "The first and the last" is applied to Christ as Eternal and Supreme (Rev 1:17; 2:8; 22:13); protos is "the first day" (Mt 26:17; Mk 16:9); in Mt 28:1; Mk 16:2; Lk 24:1; Jn 20:1,19; Acts 20:7, it is mia ("one").
W. L. Walker
furst-be-got'-'-n (prototokos): This Greek word is translated in two passages in the King James Version by "first-begotten" (Heb 1:6; Rev 1:5), but in all other places in the King James Version, and always in the Revised Version (British and American), by "firstborn." It is used in its natural literal sense of Jesus Christ as Mary's firstborn (Lk 2:7; Mt 1:25 the King James Version); it also bears the literal sense of Jesus Christ as Mary's firstborn (Lk 2:7; Mt 1:25 the King James Version); it also bears the literal sense of the firstborn of the firstborn of men and animals (Heb 11:28). It is not used in the New Testament or Septuagint of an only child, which is expressed by monogenes (see below).
Metaphorically, it is used of Jesus Christ to express at once His relation to man and the universe and His difference from them, as both He and they are related to God. The laws and customs of all nations show that to be "firstborn" means, not only priority in time, but a certain superiority in privilege and authority. Israel is Yahweh's firstborn among the nations (Ex 4:22; compare Jer 31:9). The Messianic King is God's firstborn Septuagint prototokos), "the highest of the kings of the earth" (Ps 89:27). Philo applies the word to the Logos as the archetypal and governing idea of creation. Similarly Christ, as "the firstborn of all creation" (Col 1:15), is not only prior to it in time, but above it in power and authority. "All things have been created through him, and unto him" (Col 1:16). He is "sovereign Lord over all creation by virtue of primo-geniture" (Lightfoot). It denotes His status and character and not His origin; the context does not admit the idea that He is a part of the created universe. So in His incarnation He is brought into the world as "firstborn," and God summons all His angels to worship Him (Heb 1:6). In His resurrection He is "firstborn from the dead" (Col 1:18) or "of the dead" (Rev 1:5), the origin and prince of life. And finally He is "firstborn among many brethren" in the consummation of God's purpose of grace, when all the elect are gathered home. Not only is He their Lord, but also their pattern, God's ideal Son and men are "foreordained to be conformed to (his) image" (Rom 8:29). Therefore the saints themselves, as growing in His likeness, and as possessing all the privileges of eldest sons, including the kingdom and the priesthood, may be called the "church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven" (Heb 12:23).
See also BEGOTTEN , and Lightfoot on Col 1:15.
T. Rees
furst'-froots (re'shith, bikkurim; aparche. Septuagint translates re'shith by aparche, but for bikkurim it uses the word protogennemata; compare Philo 22 33): In acknowledgment of the fact that the land and all its products were the gift of Yahweh to Israel, and in thankfulness for His bounty, all the first-fruits were offered to Him. These were offered in their natural state (e.g. cereals, tree fruits, grapes), or after preparation (e.g. musk, oil, flour, dough), after which the Israelite was at liberty to use the rest (Ex 23:19; Nu 15:20; 18:12; Dt 26:2; Neh 10:35,37). No absolute distinction can be made between re'shith and bikkurim, but re'shith seems generally to mean what is prepared by human labor, and bikkurim the direct product of Nature. The phrase "the first of the first-fruits" (Ex 23:19; 34:26; Ezek 44:30), Hebrew re'shith bikkure, Greek aparchai ton protogennematon, is not quite clear. It may mean the first-ripe or the choicest of the first-fruits. The re'shith offerings were individual, except that a re'shith of dough was to be offered as a heave offering (Nu 15:17-21). The priest waved a re'shith of corn before the Lord on the morrow after the Sabbath in the week of unleavened bread (Lev 23:9-11). These offerings all fell to the priest (Nu 18:12). Bikkurim refers specially to things sown (Ex 23:16; Lev 2:14). At the Feast of Weeks, seven weeks after the offering of the sheaf, bikkurim of corn in the ear, parched with fire and bruised, were brought to the House of the Lord as a meal offering (Ex 34:22-26; Lev 2:14-16). The bikkurim also fell to the priest, except a portion which was burned as a memorial (Lev 2:8-10,16). The beautiful ceremony of the offering of the re'shith in the House of God is described in Dt 26:1-11, and is enlarged upon in the Talmud (Bikkurim 3 2). According to the Talmud (Terumoth 4 3) a sixtieth part of the first-fruits in a prepared form was the minimum that could be offered; the more generous brought a fortieth part, and even a thirtieth. The fruits of newly planted trees were not to be gathered during the first three years; the fruits of the fourth year were consecrated to Yahweh, and from the fifth year the fruits belonged to the owner of the trees (Lev 19:23-25). According to Mishna, `Orlah i.10, even the shells of nuts and pomegranates could not be used during the first three years as coloring matter or for the lighting of fires. It is held by some scholars that the institution of the tithe (see TITHE ) is a later development from the first-fruits.
Figurative: In the Old Testament, in Jer 2:3, Israel is called "the re'shith of his increase." In the New Testament aparche is applied figuratively to the first convert or converts in a particular place (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15); to the Christians of that age (Jas 1:18; 2 Thess 2:13, WHm), and to the 144,000 in heaven (Rev 14:4); to Christ, as the first who rose from the dead (1 Cor 15:20,23); also to the blessings which we receive now through the Spirit, the earnest of greater blessings to come (Rom 8:23).
Paul Levertoff
furst'-born, furst'-ling (bekhor; prototokos): The Hebrew word denotes the firstborn of human beings as well as of animals (Ex 11:5), while a word from the same root denotes first-fruits (Ex 23:16). All the data point to the conclusion that among the ancestors of the Hebrews the sacrifice of the firstborn was practiced, just as the firstlings of the flocks and the first-fruits of the produce of the earth were devoted to the deity. The narrative of the Moabite war records the sacrifice of the heir to the throne by Mesha, to Chemosh, the national god (2 Ki 3:27). The barbarous custom must have become extinct at an early period in the religion of Israel (Gen 22:12). It was probably due to the influence of surrounding nations that the cruel practice was revived toward the close of the monarchical period (2 Ki 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jer 7:31; Ezek 16:20; 23:37; Mic 6:7). Jeremiah denies that the offering of human beings could have been an instruction from Yahweh (7:31; 19:5). The prophetic conception of God had rendered such a doctrine inconceivable. Clear evidence of the spiritualization and humanizati0n of religion among the Israelites is furnished in the replacement, at an early stage, of the actual sacrifice of the firstborn by their dedication to the service of Yahweh. At a later stage the Levites were substituted for the firstborn. Just as the firstlings of unclean animals were redeemed with money (Ex 13:13; 34:20), for the dedication of the firstborn was substituted the consecration of the Levites to the service of the sanctuary (Nu 3:11-13,15). On the 30th day after birth the firstborn was brought to the priest by the father, who paid five shekels for the child's redemption from service in the temple (compare Lk 2:27; Mishna Bekhoroth viii.8). For that service the Levites were accepted in place of the redeemed firstborn (Nu 3:45). See note. According to Ex 22:29-31 the firstborn were to be given to Yahweh. (The firstborn of clean animals, if free from spot or blemish, were to be sacrificed after eight days, Nu 18:16 ff.) This allusion to the sacrifice of the firstborn as part of the religion of Yahweh has been variously explained. Some scholars suspect the text, but in all probability the verse means no more than similar references to the fact that the firstborn belonged to Yahweh (Ex 13:2; 34:19). The modifying clause, with regard to the redemption of the firstborn, has been omitted. The firstborn possessed definite privileges which were denied to other members of the family. The Law forbade the disinheriting of the firstborn (Dt 21:15-17). Such legislation, in polygamous times, was necessary to prevent a favorite wife from exercising undue influence over her husband in distributing his property, as in the case of Jacob (Gen 25:23). The oldest son's share was twice as large as that of any other son. When Elisha prayed for a double portion of Elijah's spirit, he simply wished to be considered the firstborn, i.e. the successor, of the dying prophet. Israel was Yahweh's firstborn (Ex 4:22; compare Jer 31:9 (Ephraim)). Israel, as compared with other nations, was entitled to special privileges. She occupied a unique position in virtue of the special relationship between Yahweh and the nation. In three passages (Rom 8:29; Col 1:15; Heb 1:6), Jesus Christ is the firstborn--among many brethren (Rom 8:29); of every creature (Col 1:16). This application of the term to Jesus Christ may be traced back to Ps 89:27 where the Davidic ruler, or perhaps the nation, is alluded to as the firstborn of Yahweh.
See CHILD ;CIRCUMCISION ;FIRST-BEGOTTEN ;PLAGUES OF EGYPT .
NOTE--The custom of redeeming the firstborn son is preserved among the Jews to this day. After thirty days the father invites the "Kohen," i.e. a supposed descendant of Aaron, to the house. The child is brought and shown to the "Kohen," and the father declares the mother of the child to be an Israelite. If she is a "Kohen," redemption is not necessary. The "Kohen" asks the father which he prefers, his child or the five shekels; the father answers that he prefers his son, and pays to the "Kohen" a sum equivalent to five shekels. After receiving the redemption-money, the "Kohen" puts his hands on the child's head and pronounces the Aaronite blessing (Nu 6:22-27).
T. Lewis
See FIRSTBORN .
(dagh, daghah, da'gh; ichthus, ichthudion, opsarion):
Fishes abound in the inland waters of Palestine as well as the Mediterranean. They are often mentioned or indirectly referred to both in the Old Testament and in the New Testament, but it is remarkable that no particular kind is distinguished by name. In Lev 11:9-12 and Dt 14:9 f, "whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters" is declared clean, while all that "have not fins and scales" are forbidden. This excluded not only reptiles and amphibians, but also, among fishes, siluroids and eels, sharks, rays and lampreys. For our knowledge of the inland fishes of Palestine we are mainly indebted to Tristram, NHB and Fauna and Flora of Palestine; Lortet, Poissons et reptiles du Lac de Tiberiade; and Russegger, Reisen in Europa, Asien, Afrika, 1835-1841. The most remarkable feature of the fish fauna of the Jordan valley is its relationship to that of the Nile and of East Central Africa. Two Nile fishes, Chromis nilotica Hasselquist, and Clarias macracanthus Gunth., are found in the Jordan valley, and a number of other species found only in the Jordan valley belong to genera (Chromis and Hemichromis) which are otherwise exclusively African. This seems to indicate that at some time, probably in the early Tertiary, there was some connection between the Palestinian and African river systems. No fish can live in the Dead Sea, and many perish through being carried down by the swift currents of the Jordan and other streams. There are, however, several kinds of small fish which live in salt springs on the borders of the Dead Sea, springs which are as salt as the Dead Sea but which, according to Lortet, lack the magnesium chloride which is a constituent of the Dead Sea water and is fatal to the fish. Capoeta damascina Cuv. and Val., one of the commonest fishes of Syria and Palestine, has been taken by the writer in large numbers in the Arnon and other streams flowing into
the Dead Sea. This is surprising in view of the fact that the Dead Sea seems to form an effective barrier between the fishes of the different streams flowing into it. The indiscriminate mention of fishes without reference to the different kinds is well illustrated by the numerous passages in which "the fishes of the sea, the birds of the heavens, and the beasts of the field," or some equivalent expression, is used to denote all living creatures, e.g. Gen 1:26; 9:2; Nu 11:22; Dt 4:18; 1 Ki 4:33; Job 12:8; Ps 8:8; Ezek 38:20; Hos 4:3; Zeph 1:3; 1 Cor 15:39.
An unusually large shark might fulfill the conditions of Jonah's fish (dagh, daghah; but Mt 12:40, ketos, "whale" or "sea monster"). The whale that is found in the Mediterranean (Balaena australis) has a narrow throat and could not swallow a man. No natural explanation is possible of Jonah's remaining alive and conscious for three days in the creature's belly. Those who consider the book historical must regard the whole event as miraculous. For those who consider it to be a story with a purpose, no explanation is required.
The present inhabitants of Moab and Edom make no use of the fish that swarm in the Arnon, the Hisa and other streams, but fishing is an important industry in Galilee and Western Palestine. Now, as formerly, spear hooks and nets are employed. The fish-spear (Job 41:7) is little used. Most of the Old Testament references to nets have to do with the taking of birds and beasts and not of fishes, and, while in Hab 1:15 cherem is rendered "net" and mikhmereth "drag," it is hot clear that these and the other words rendered "net" refer to particular kinds of nets. In the New Testament, however, sagene (Mt 13:47), is clearly the dragnet, and amphiblestron (Mt 4:18), is clearly the casting net. The word most often used is diktuon. Though this word is from dikein, "to throw," or "to cast," the context in several places (e.g. Lk 5:4; Jn 21:11) suggests that a dragnet is meant. The dragnet may be several hundred feet long. The upper edge is buoyed and the lower edge is weighted. It is let down from a boat in a line parallel to the shore and is then pulled in by ropes attached to the two ends, several men and boys usually pulling at each end. The use of the casting net requires much skill. It forms a circle of from 10 to 20 feet in diameter with numerous small leaden weights at the circumference. It is lifted by the center and carefully gathered over the right arm. When well thrown it goes to some distance, at the same time spreading out into a wide circle. A cord may be attached to the center, but this is not always the case. When lifted again by the center, the leads come together, dragging over the bottom, and sometimes a large number of fish may be enclosed. The novice has only to try, to realize the dexterity of the practiced fishermen.
Figurative: The fact that so many of our Lord's disciples were fishermen lends a profound interest to their profession. Christ tells Simon and Andrew (Mt 4:19; Mk 1:17) that He will make them fishers of men. The Kingdom of Heaven (Mt 13:47) is likened unto a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind; which, when it was filled, they drew up on the beach; and they sat down and gathered the good into vessels, but the bad they cast away. Tristram (NHB) says that he has seen the fishermen go through their net and throw out into the sea those that were too small for the market or were considered unclean. In Jer 16:16, we read: "Behold, I will send for many fishers, saith Yahweh, and they shall fish them up; and afterward I will send for many hunters, and they shall hunt them from every mountain, and from every hill, and out of the clefts of the rocks." In the vision of Ezekiel (Ezek 47:9 f), the multitude of fish and the nets spread from En-gedi to En-eglaim are marks of the marvelous change wrought in the Dead Sea by the stream issuing from the temple. The same sign, i.e. of the spreading of nets (Ezek 26:5,14), marks the desolation of Tyre. It is a piece of broiled fish that the risen Lord eats with the Eleven in Jerusalem (Lk 24:42), and by the Sea of Galilee (Jn 21:13) He gives the disciples bread and fish.
Alfred Ely Day
See JERUSALEM .
kot: This expression is found in Jn 21:7 where the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version have "coat." John here, after representing Peter as "naked" (gumnos), pictures him as girding on his "coat" (ependutes), literally, "upper garment," and not at all specifically a "fisher's coat."
See DRESS .
fish'-er fish'-er-man (dayyagh, dawwagh; halieus; Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek haleeus): Although but few references to fishermen are made in the Bible, these men and their calling are brought into prominence by Jesus' call to certain Galilee fishermen to become His disciples (Mt 4:18,19; Mk 1:16,17). Fishermen, then as now, formed a distinct class. The strenuousness of the work (Lk 5:2) ruled out the weak and indolent. They were crude in manner, rough in speech and in their treatment of others (Lk 9:49,54; Jn 18:10). James and John before they became tempered by Jesus' influence were nicknamed the "sons of thunder" (Mk 3:17). The fishermen's exposure to all kinds of weather made them hardy and fearless. They were accustomed to bear with patience many trying circumstances. They often toiled for hours without success, and yet were always ready to try once more (Lk 5:5; Jn 21:3). Such men, when impelled by the same spirit as filled their Master, became indeed "fishers of men" (Mt 4:19; Mk 1:17).
One of the striking instances of the fulfillment of prophecy is the use by the Syrian fishermen today of the site of ancient Tyre as a place for the spreading of their nets (Ezek 26:5,14).
Figurative: Fish were largely used as food (Hab 1:16), hence, the lamentation of the fishermen, who provided for all, typified general desolation (Isa 19:8). On the other hand, abundance of fish and many fishermen indicated general abundance (Ezek 47:10). Our modern expression, "treated like a dog," had its counterpart in the language of the Old Testament writers, when they portrayed the punished people of Judah as being treated like fish. Yahweh would send many fishers to fish them up and put sticks or hooks through their cheeks as a fisherman strings his fish (Jer 16:16; Job 41:2). Such treatment of the people of Judah is depicted on some of the Assyrian monuments.
James A. Patch
fish'-hook (cir dughah, chakkah): The word "fishhooks" occurs but twice in the American Standard Revised Version (Job 41:1; Am 4:2). In other passages the word hook or "angle" is applied to this instrument for fishing (Isa 19:8; Job 41:2). The ancient Egyptian noblemen used to amuse themselves by fishing from their private fishpools with hook and line. The Egyptian monuments show that the hook was quite commonly used for catching fish. The hook is still used in Bible lands, although not as commonly as nets. It is called a cinnarat, probably from the same root as tsinnah, the plural of which is translated hooks in Am 4:2. In Mt 17:27, agkistron (literally, "fishhook"), is rendered "hook."
James A. Patch
fish'-ing (halieuo): Several methods of securing fish are resorted to at the present day along the seashores of Palestine. Two of these, dynamiting and poisoning with the juice of cyclamen bulbs or other poisonous plants, can be passed over as havi ng no bearing on ancient methods.
(1) With Hooks:
Some fishing is done with hooks and lines, either on poles when fishing from shore, or on trawls in deep-sea fishing. The fishhooks now used are of European origin, but bronze fishhooks of a very early date have been discovered. That fishing with hooks was known in Jesus' time is indicated by the Master's command to Peter (Mt 17:27).
See FISHHOOK .
(2) With Spears:
Job 41:7 probably refers to an instrument much like the barbed spear still used along the Syrian coast. It is used at night by torchlight.
(3) With Nets:
In the most familiar Bible stories of fisherman life a net was used. Today most of the fishing is done in the same way. These nets are homemade. Frequently one sees the fishermen or members of their families making nets or repairing old ones during the stormy days when fishing is impossible.
Nets are used in three ways: (a) A circular net, with small meshes and leaded around the edge, is cast from the shore into the shallow water in such a manner that the leaded edge forms the base of a cone, the apex being formed by the fisherman holding the center of the net in his hand. The cone thus formed encloses such fish as cannot escape the quick throw of the fisher. (b) A long net or seine of one or two fathoms depth, leaded on one edge and provided with floats on the other, is payed out from boats in such a way as to surround a school of fish. Long ropes fastened to the two ends are carried ashore many yards apart, and from five to ten men on each rope gradually draw in the net. The fish are then landed from the shallow water with small nets or by hand. This method is commonly practiced on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. (c) In deeper waters a net similar to that described above, but four or five fathoms deep, is cast from boats and the ends slowly brought together so as to form a circle. Men then dive down and bring one portion of the weighted edge over under the rest, so as to form a bottom. The compass of the net is then narrowed, and the fish are emptied from the net into the boat. Sometimes the net with the fish enclosed is towed into shallow water before drawing. The above method is probably the one the disciples used (Mt 4:18; Mk 1:16; Lk 5:2-10; Jn 21:3-11). Portions of nets with leads and floats, of early Egyptian origin, may be seen in the British Museum.
See NET .
The fishermen today usually work with their garments girdled up about their waists. Frequently they wear only a loose outer garment which is wet much of the time. This garment can be quickly removed by pulling it over the head, When occasion requires the fisherman to jump into the sea. If methods have not changed, Peter had probably just climbed back into the boat after adjusting the net for drawing when he learned that it was Jesus who stood on the shore. He was literally naked and pulled on his coat before he went ashore (Jn 21:7).
James A. Patch
fish'-pools: This is a mistranslation. The Hebrew berekhoth (Song 7:4) simply means "pools" (Revised Version); "fish" is quite unwarrantably introduced in the King James Version. In Isa 19:10, again, instead of "all that make sluices and ponds for fish" (the King James Version), we should certainly read, with the Revised Version (British and American), "All they that work for hire shall be grieved in soul."
fit'-li: The word "fit" (adjective and verb) occurs a few times, representing nearly as many Hebrew and Greek words. the Revised Version (British and American) frequently alters, as in Lev 16:21 (`itti, "timely," "opportune," "ready"), where for "fit" it reads "in readiness," margin "appointed." In 1 Ch 7:11 the Revised Version (British and American) has "that were able"; in Isa 44:13, "shapeth"; in Prov 24:27, "ready," etc. "Fitly" in Prov 25:11 is in the Revised Version, margin "in due season"; in Song 5:12, "fitly set" is in the Revised Version, margin "sitting by full streams." In the New Testament "fit" is the translation of euthetos, "well placed" (Lk 9:62; 14:35), of kathekon, "suitable" (Acts 22:22), and of katartizo, "to make quite ready" (Rom 9:22, "vessels of wrath fitted unto destruction").
W. L. Walker
fich'-iz (the English word "fitch" is the same as "vetch"):
(1) qetsach (Isa 28:25,27; the Revised Version, margin has "black cummin" (Nigella sativa)). This is the "nutmeg flower," an annual herb (Natural Order, Ranunculaceae), the black seeds of which are sprinkled over some kinds of bread in Palestin. They were used as a condiment by the ancient Greeks and Romans. These seeds have a warm aromatic flavor and are carminative in their properties, assisting digestion. They, like all such plants which readily yield their seed, are still beaten out with rods. The contrast between the stouter staff for the "fitches" and the lighter rod for the cummin is all the more noticeable when the great similarity of the two seeds is noticed.
(2) kuccemim (pl.) (Ezek 4:9) the Revised Version (British and American) "spelt" (which see).
E. W. G. Masterman
fiv (chamesh; pente).
See NUMBER .